4.6 Function Words — Epoché
What you will be able to do Recognise the forty commonest function words in Latin. Say which case each preposition takes, and what changes when one takes two. Read the three words that do three different jobs each. Place the two words that cannot stand first in their clause. Read sentences like Vēnī ut hoc dīcam. [87] — I came in order to say this. — without looking anything up. Prerequisites : lesson 4.5 — speech, thought and writing. This lesson is last in the volume and should probably be first. The words in it have no meaning you could draw a picture of, they are dull to read, and they are the most useful forty words in the language by a margin that is not close. Here is the arithmetic. The forty words below account for about seventeen thousand occurrences in a corpus of thirty-seven thousand sentences — roughly one function word from this list every two sentences, and the top two alone appear six thousand times. No forty nouns could do that. Frequency in any language belongs to the words that hold sentences together, not to the words that fill them. There is a second reason, which the reading volume will demonstrate. When you meet an unknown noun you can guess from context and read on; when you misread a conjunction you get the relation between two clauses backwards and the whole sentence inverts. Unknown content words cost you detail. Unknown function words cost you the sense. Word list Forty words in order of how often they appear in the corpus. The second column names the case a preposition takes, which is not optional information — a preposition with the wrong case is a different preposition. Word (dictionary form) Meaning Notes in la in, on (where); into, onto (where to) Part of speech preposition (+ abl., + acc.) How it differs from English Note: two cases, two meanings. Ablative for rest, accusative for motion. The commonest word in the corpus after the verb to be. Abi in pace. Go in peace. nōn la not Part of speech adverb How it differs from English Stands immediately before what it negates, which is usually the verb. Cur non? Why not? et la and; also, even Part of speech conjunction How it differs from English Joins anything to anything. Doubled, et … et , it means both … and . Et nunc? And now? ad la to, towards; at, near; for Part of speech preposition (+ acc.) How it differs from English Motion towards. English advance , admit , and every verb beginning with ad- . Ad arma! To arms! ubi la where; when Part of speech adverb, conjunction How it differs from English Note: both a question word and a relative. As a conjunction it means when . Ubi cōnstitistis? Where did you stop? quam la how; than; as … as possible Part of speech adverb, conjunction How it differs from English Note: three jobs. In an exclamation, how ; after a comparative, than ; before a superlative, as … as possible . Quam bellula! How cute! cum la with; when, since, although Part of speech preposition (+ abl.); conjunction How it differs from English Note: two entirely different words, spelled the same. The preposition takes the ablative; the conjunction takes a verb. Concordia cum veritate. In harmony with truth. ut la that, in order that; as, how Part of speech conjunction, adverb How it differs from English With the subjunctive, purpose or result; with the indicative, as or how . Ut vales? How are you doing? hīc la here Part of speech adverb How it differs from English Note: not the pronoun hic , this . The vowel is long and nothing else distinguishes them. Colloquamur hic. We'll talk here. dē la down from; about, concerning Part of speech preposition (+ abl.) How it differs from English The second sense is the commoner. English describe , detail , and de- in general. Audivimus de te. We heard about you. cūr la why Part of speech adverb How it differs from English The ordinary question word. It expects an answer with the word for because . Cur aberas? Why were you absent? Cur nunc? Why now? quod la because; that; which (n.) Part of speech conjunction; pronoun How it differs from English Note: three jobs again — a causal conjunction, a noun clause marker, and the neuter relative pronoun. Quod abominor! God forbid! valdē la very, greatly Part of speech adverb How it differs from English The ordinary intensifier in everyday Latin, where the literary language prefers other words. Valde aegrotant. They're very sick. nunc la now Part of speech adverb How it differs from English Of the present moment. English nuncupative only; the word itself did not survive. sed la but Part of speech conjunction How it differs from English Stands first in its clause, as English but does. Sed certe! But of course! Sedet super mensam. She's sitting on the table. ex, ē la out of, from Part of speech preposition (+ abl.) How it differs from English Note: ex before a vowel, ē before most consonants. English exit , elect . ab, ā la from, away from; by (an agent) Part of speech preposition (+ abl.) How it differs from English Note: same rule — ab before a vowel. With a person it marks the agent of a passive verb. sī la if Part of speech conjunction How it differs from English With the indicative for a real condition, with the subjunctive for an unreal one. English condition has it inside. Mentiar si negem. I should lie if I should deny it. hodiē la today Part of speech adverb How it differs from English From hōc diē , on this day . French aujourd'hui is its descendant. Bibistine hodie? Have you been drinking today? per la through; during; by means of Part of speech preposition (+ acc.) How it differs from English English perfect , perform , per cent . Per vim! By force! semper la always Part of speech adverb How it differs from English English sempiternal , and the motto of the Marines. Semper ambulo. I always walk. iam la already, now; by this time Part of speech adverb How it differs from English With a negative it means no longer , which is a shift English does not make. Comedistine iam? Have you already eaten? bene la well Part o